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Introduction There has always been a search for
beverages that are palatable and refreshing.
Thousands of plant species have been utilized throughout history, but
very few of these have ever become of commercial importance. They are divided into nonalcoholic and
alcoholic beverages. Nonalcoholic
Beverages With Caffeine Beverages with caffeine content
are used worldwide for their stimulating and refreshing qualities. Typically each ancient center of
civilization had its own beverage plants.
Coffee that originated in regions adjacent to Southwestern Asia is now
used by over half the world’s population.
Tea that is associated with Southeastern Asia is used by over half the
world population. Cocoa is a product
of tropical America and which today serves as booth food and drink for many
worldwide. There are other less known
beverages that are equally important.
These include maté, a principal drink in South America; cola, a
favorite beverage and masticatory in Africa; haat, used in Arab countries;
guarana, another South American drink that has higher caffeine content than
any other beverages. Caffeine is an alkaloid with
definite medicinal values. It acts as
a diuretic and nerve stimulant. It is
harmful in large quantities so it is present only in very small amounts,
rarely over two percent, in beverages.
Especially children should avoid excessive quantities of such
beverages. Coffee is one of the most
important beverage plants from a commercial viewpoint despite the fact that
tea is in wider usage. The coffee
plant is believed to be native to Abyssinia and coffee surely had been used
in that area since ancient times. It
was brought to Arabia in about the 16th Century and that area produced most
of the crop for 200 years. Coffee
gradually was introduced elsewhere in the world tropics. It reached Ceylon and Java by 1700, the
West Indies in 1720 and Brazil in 1770 (Hill 1952). Coffee began to be in general use about 1700. From Arabia it spread to Egypt and
Palestine and then to Constantinople.
It reached Venice in 1615, Paris in 1645 and London in 1650 (Hill 1952). In both France and England coffee gained
widespread popularity for a time and this led to the beginning of the famous
coffeehouses, gathering places of the literary people of the day. <bot432> Kona Coffee (Coffea
arabica L.), [Abyssinia], Kona Coast, Hawaii <bot702> Coffee tree with fruit (Coffea arabica ) [Ethiopia] <bot1206> -- Sketch of coffee plant with
berries attached to stem (Coffea
arabica L.) (beverage) [Abyssinia] Coffee is in the genus Coffea that contains over 25
species, only three of which are of commercial importance. Arabian Coffee, Coffea arabica, is the source of over
90 percent of the world’s supply. The
plant is native to Abyssinia where it occurs as a beautiful shrub or small
tree, 15-20 ft in height. The smooth
evergreen leaves are borne in pairs.
The white, fragrant, star like flowers are clustered in the leaf
axils. The fruits, sometimes called
“cherries,” are small fleshy berries that change in color from green through
yellow to red or crimson. The two
greenish gray seeds are covered with a thin membrane, the silver skin, and
are enclosed in a dry husk like parchment.
When only one seed develops the fruit is known as “pea berry,” and
commands a higher price. Coffee is
definitely a tropical crop and requires a hot humid climate. It is restricted to regions lying between
25 deg. North and 25 deg. South latitude.
It needs at least 50 in. of rainfall and does best with 75-120
in. High humus content is
desirable. The plant is very
susceptible to diseases. There are
over 18 kinds of Arabian coffee under cultivation. One of them, Mocha Coffee, is a
small-seeded variety that is grown in the Red Sea region and is highly
prized. Congo Coffee, Coffea robusta, is a larger and more
vigorous plant with thick leaves. It
bears very heavily and is much more hardy and thus is adapted to a wider
range of climates. It is native to
the Congo region of Africa cut is also cultivated elsewhere. It constitutes a great part of the coffee
grown in Indonesia. The quality of
Congo coffee is inferior to that of Arabian coffee. Liberian Coffee, Coffea liberica, is native to
the west coast of Africa. The tree is
much larger reaching a height of 40-50 ft and with fruits 1 in. in
diameter. The plant is more vigorous
and les susceptible to disease. This
coffee is used primarily in blends for the flavor and aroma are inferior to
the other two species. Coffee
Cultivation and Preparation Coffee can be grown in the tropics
from sea level to an altitude of 6,000 ft. and thrives best at the higher
elevations with 4,500 ft being optimum.
Under cultivation the plants are grown directly from seed, or
seedlings are transplanted at 6-foot intervals. Shading and continuous weeding are essential, and catch crops
are often grown. The plants begin to
bear in their third year with the best yield obtained from the fifth year
until about 30 years. The coffee berries are generally
picked individually by hand when fully ripe, although in Arabia and parts of
Brazil they are stripped off or allowed to fall to the ground. After picking and sifting or winnowing to
remove the debris, coffee is prepared for the market by either the dry or the
wet procedure. In the former the
berries are spread out on drying floors and exposed to the sun with
precautions taken to protect them from the rain. The berries are constantly stirred so that they will dry
uniformly. Eventually the dried skin
and pulp are cleaned off by machinery and the parchment is removed by
pounding in a mortar or by mechanical means.
In the wet method the berries are run through a pulping machine that
removes the skin and part of the pulp.
They are then placed in vats where the remainder of the pulp ferments
and can be washed off. They are
finally dried by the sun or artificial heat.
The color of the finished product depends on the amount of
moisture. After drying the brittle
parchment is cracked and removed by hulling machines and the silver skin is
rubbed off in polishing machines. The
seeds or “coffee beans” are then gr4aded and packed in burlap bags for shipment. Sometimes coffee is exported with the
parchment still intact. Eventually
the beans are roasted in a process that results in a loss in weight but a
gain in bulk and which is accompanied by many physiological changes. The aroma, flavor and color develop during
the roasting process. No two varieties
require the same amount of roasting and there are many differences in the
temperature used and the duration of the process. Before coffee is sold it is usually ground. Trade coffee is often made up of different
blends. The roasted coffee beans
contain 0.75-1.5 percent caffeine and a volatile, Caffeol,
which is responsible for the aroma and flavor. Glucose, dextrin, proteins and fatty oil are also present. The oil tends to become rancid if coffee
is stored unrefrigerated. Coffee
Production and Consumption Arabia first led in coffee
production but was replaced in turn by the West Indies, java and Brazil. Sri Lanka was an important producer from
1830-1875 when the industry was destroyed by blight. Brazil then became the predominant producer
with over 50 percent of the world’s supply.
This then diminished and other areas of the Western Hemisphere began
to increase coffee acreage. About 85
percent of the world’s coffee was being grown in the Western Hemisphere by
the 21st Century. Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa
Rico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Haiti are most important. Jamaica coffee
with low acreage is probably the most expensive and of the best quality. Central American coffees are milder in
flavor and richer bodied. There are many ways of using coffee. In Turkey coffee grounds mixed with sugar
are consumed, and Turkish coffee is a thick and syrupy concoction. In Sumatra coffee leaves are steeped and
yield a wholesome and good-flavored beverage. Coffee extract and soluble coffee as well as decaffeinated
coffee are widely available. Coffee
is frequently adulterated, usually with chicory, the roasted and ground roots
of the chicory plant. In Europe
coffee-containing chicory is often preferred to the pure product. Substitutes for coffee have also been
used, such as Postum and other cereal beverages that are made from roasted
barley or wheat and which lack caffeine. The pulp and parchment waste
products are used for fertilizer, fuel and in the manufacture of cafelite, a
plastic material with good insulating properties. Tea,
Camellia sinensis,
native to Assam India and China, is the most popular caffeine beverage in the
world. It is prepared from the dried
leaves. In China it was originally
valued only for medicinal properties, but since the 5th Century it has been
the principal beverage. The word “tea:”
is from “te” that is used in one of the Chinese dialects in place of
the more universal “cha.” Tea
arrived in Japan around 1,000 A.D. It
was known in Europe in the 16th Century but did not become widely used until
the 17th Century (Hill 1952).
Although London is the great tea market of the world, the prominence
of tea drinking in England came about only during the 19th Century. <bot628> Tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze]
[China]
plantation in central Uganda The plant is a small tree but
under cultivation it grows as a shrub, 3-4 ft. tall. The leathery lanceolate leaves have a
serrated margin and numerous oil glands.
The white or pinkish flowers are produced in the leaf axils and give
rise to capsular fruits. Constant
pruning stimulates the vigorous development of new shoots, and these
“flushes” are the source of the commercial product. Tea grows best under tropical or
hot temperate regions. The nature of
the plant and the methods of cultivation vary with the locality. Over 1,000 varieties are known. The plant is propagated from seed or
seedlings. The yield may vary from
200-1,000 lbs. per acre and continues for over 50 years. In Japan there are records of a single
plant living for 200 years. Tea can
be grown from sea level to about 5,000 ft.
Often steep slopes and soil that is too poor for other types of
agriculture are used. In China there
is much tea grown on small farms and is prepared for market by primitive
methods. In Sri Lanka tea is
cultivated on large plantations and the most modern mechanical methods are
used in its preparation. Tea leaves are picked by hand or with scissors and an
expert can pick from 25-75 lbs. per day.
In China where growth stops during the winter only 3-4 pickings a year
are possible. In hotter climates,
such as Sri Lanka, where growth continues throughout the year, as many as
25-30 pickings can be made. The first
picking is usually made when the plants are five years old. The grade of tea depends on the age of the
leaves. In golden tips the youngest
bud only is used; in orange pekoe the smallest leaf; in pekoe the second
leaf; in pekoe-souchong the third leaf; in souchong the fourth leaf; and in
congou the 5th and longest leaf is gathered.
The flavor and quality vary with the soil, climate, age of the leaf, time
of picking and method of preparation. Preparation of tea from the fresh
leaves generally is as follows: The
leaves are first exposed to the sun or heated in shallow trays until they
become soft and pliable. Then they
are rolled by hand or by machine.
This curls the leaves and removes some of the sap. Finally the curled and twisted leaves are
completely dried in the sun, over fires or in a current of hot air. In the final product, called green tea,
the dried leaves are dull green with an even texture and quality. In making black tea, the leaves are
fermented after rolling by covering them and keeping them warm. This causes them to lose their green color
and changes their flavor. After
fermentation the leaves are dried in the usual manner. Sometimes the way tea is shipped after
fermentation alters its flavor. Some
of the highest quality teas have had their flavor created during long voyages
at sea. Both green and black tea is
produced in China. In Japan mostly
green tea is produced and in India and Sri Lanka chiefly black tea is
made. In Taiwan the oolong tea is
produced. This is only partially
fermented and is intermediate between black and green tea, with the color of
the former and the flavor of the latter.
The various pekoes, souchongs and congous are black teas, while
gunpowder tea and hyson tea are the most important grades of green tea. Drying the leaves with fragrant
flowers, such as jasmine, and then sifting out the dried flowers prepare
scented teas. Brick tea is made by
steaming the coarser leaves, twigs and even dust for a few minutes and then
pressing them into molds, sometimes with the addition of a small amount of
rice paste. Brick tea is exported
from China to Russia and Tibet. Where
tea is grown on large plantations and prepared in factories it can be packed
directly for export. Tea is usually
shipped in light boxes lined with foil to protect the tea from air and
moisture. The tea that finally
reaches the market is usually a blend of several different varieties. Blending is a delicate procedure and
reserved for the experts. Tea contains 2-5 percent Theine, an alkaloid identical with caffeine, and a volatile
oil and considerable tannin (13-18 percent).
When an infusion is made with hot water, the alkaloid and the oil
dissolve out and the resulting beverage has a stimulating effect and a
characteristic taste and aroma. If
the leaves are steeped for a longer period the tannin dissolves and the
liquid becomes bitter and loses its beneficial qualities. China was the original exporter of
tea, but Java began to export it in 1826, India in 1830, Taiwan in 1860 and
Sri Lanka in 1890. By the 21st
Century China and India together produced most of the world’s tea. A small amount is produced in East Africa,
Central and South America. Great
Britain imports the most tea, but the use is gradually spreading to other
countries as the beneficial qualities of tea are recognized. Both chocolate and cocoa are prepared
from seeds of the cacao or Cocoa tree,
Theobroma cacao that
is native to the lowlands of tropical America. Hill (1952) stated that the cultivation and use of cocoa are so
ancient that it is improbable that there were any more wild trees. Cocoa is grown throughout tropical South
and Central America, in the West Indies, West Africa and a few other
areas. The beverage was first
presented in 1526 in Europe after the 1519 voyage of Cortez. Chocolate was widely used by Amerindians
in the Mexico to South America region.
It is the most nutritious of all beverages. (Also please see Further
Details) Cocoa is a wholly tropical crop
that is grown primarily within 20 degrees of the equator. It requires special environmental
conditions. For example, it is
sensitive to drought and wind and requires shelter from direct rays of the
sun and the wind. Catch crops and permanent
shade trees are usually grown with cocoa.
A deep rich alluvial soil with abundant moisture and suitable drainage
is necessary. The plant does not grow
well above 2,500 ft. and is injured by temperatures below 60 deg.
Fahrenheit. The crop is raised from
seed or transplanted seedlings with the individual plants in rows at 4-5 ft.
intervals. The tree is small, from 15-25 ft.
tall, with numerous branches. The
shiny leaves are ovate in outline and frequently one foot in length. The flowers and frutis are borne on short
stalks directly on the trunk and larger branches. The trees begin to bear when 4-5 years of age, reaching full
bearing during the age of 12-50 years.
The plants produce flowers and fruit throughout the year so that several
crops are possible each year. The
fruits are pod like capsules 6-9 in. long and 3-4 in thick, with tapering
ends. They contain a mucilaginous
pulp and usually from 40-60 seeds.
The sweet pulp is especially delicious with a coconut pineapple
flavor. The fruits ripen in about
four months and their color changes from green to reddish purple or yellow. There are numerous varieties of
cocoa cultivated. The most important
of these are the Criollo and Forastero.
In the Criollo type the fruit is soft and thin skinned, with a rough
surface and pointed ends. The seeds
are plump, pale in color, and whitish within. They are the finest beans for flavoring. The Forastero varieties are hybrids that
are hardier and more resistant and have hard thick-shelled pods with seeds of
a pale to deep purple color. Most of
the commercial crop is from this type. To prepare the cocoa seeds for
market the mature pods are carefully cut off with special knives and are then
split open. The pulp and seeds are
scooped out, cured, and usually fermented.
Sometimes they are merely dried in the sun, but their flavor is
enhanced if fermentation is allowed to take place. This process may be done by piling the seeds in mounds for
several days and then spreading them out to dry. Specially constructed vats or houses are used that afford
protection from rain and allow the liquids from the disintegrating pulp to
run off. The seeds in these “sweating
boxes” are constantly stirred. During
fermentation, which takes about a week, the beans become brownish red in
color, lose their bitter taste and develop an aroma. They are then washed and dried and
polished by machines to remove any remaining dry pulp. Commercial cocoa and chocolate are
prepared from the processed seeds or “beans” in European and American
factories. The beans are first
cleaned to remove any impurities and are then sorted. They are next roasted at a temperature of
257-284 deg. Fahrenheit
in iron drums. This
develops the flavor, increases the fat and protein content and decreases the
amount of tannin. The shells become
dry and brittle and the seeds are now easy to grind. The beans are now passed between
corrugated rollers that break the shells into small fragments. These are removed in a winnowing
machine. The seeds or “nibs” are
finally ground to an oily paste, constituting the “liquor” or bitter
chocolate, which is the beginning point for further processing. When cooled and hardened the
“liquor” is the bitter chocolate of commerce. Adding sugar and various spices or other aromatic substances
make sweet chocolate. Milk chocolate
contains milk as well as sugar and spices.
Removing about two-thirds of the fatty oil in hydraulic presses and
powdering the residue make Cocoa. Cocoa Butter
is the fatty oil present. The cocoa
shells are used for beverage purposes, for adulterating cocoa and chocolate,
for fertilizer and for livestock feed. Cocoa
Production & Consumption West Africa has led in the
production of cocoa since the middle of the 20th Century with over 64 percent
of the total output. The Gold Coast,
Nigeria and St. Thomas are the leading countries. Less than 30 percent of the world crop is produced in the
Western Hemisphere, principally in Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Trinidad and the
Dominican Republic. Asia and the
Pacific Islands produce a very small amount. Cocoa is not only a beverage but
also a food. The seeds contain less
than one percent of an alkaloid, Theobromine, which
with a few traces of caffeine is responsible for the stimulating
properties. They also contain 30-50
percent of a fatty oil, 15 percent starch and 15 perecent protein. A volatile oil develops during the
roasting process. Yerba Maté, or Paraguay Tea, is next to
coffee, tea and cocoa in importance.
It is obtained from the leaves of various species of holly,
principally Ilex paraguariensis. These plants grow wild in the mountains of
southern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and they are also cultivated to some
extent. The use of maté in South
America dates to antiquity.
Originating with the Amerindians it was adopted by the first European
colonists and today is the universal beverage. The plants are evergreen shrubs or small trees. The oval leaves are 4-5 in. long with
serrated margins and resemble tealeaves.
Maté can readily be grown from seed and the first crop is ready within
a year, but the best yield is obtained from older plants. To harvest the small leafy
branches are carefully cut and toasted over fires. They are then beaten with sticks to break off the leaves, which
are dried in ovens. They are finally
threshed and sifted. The leaves like
tea contain up to 0.5 percent theine, a volatile oil and some tannin. Maté is greenish in color, has an
agreeable aroma and is slightly bitter though it is much less astringent than
tea. It has valuable restorative and
stimulating properties. The beverage
is usually prepared in a gourd or cup by pouring boiling water on the leaves,
often with sugar and lemon. It is
then sucked through a bombilla or hollow tube of silver, brass or
straw with a perforated bowl that serves as a strainer. Maté is the universal drink of millions in
South America but has not been popular in other parts of the world. A process of double toasting produces a
brownish beverage with a tangier flavor, especially for the North American
trade. Maté is also used to some
extent in the preparation of soft drinks. This is one of the more
stimulating of all caffeine beverages as it contains three times as much
caffeine as coffee. It is prepared
from the seeds of Paullinia cupana,
a large woody climber of the Amazon region.
The seeds are round with water and cassava flour and the resulting
paste is molded into brown sausage-shaped cylinders or other forms. These are dried in smoke where they become
very hard. These can be kept for many
years. For use it is grated and added
to either hot or cold water. One half
teaspoon of the reddish brown guarana in a cupful of water is equivalent to
2-3 cups of strong coffee. Guarana
contains some tannin and a volatile oil and is bitter and astringent with a
bittersweet taste. The beverage is
widely used in Brazil especially in the Mato Grosso where the plant is
cultivated to some extent. Catha
edulis is
a shrub that grows wild in Abyssinia and is cultivated in other parts of
Northeastern Africa. The dark-green
leaves are used in Arabia to yield khat, a principal beverage. The leaves and buds contain an alkaloid
similar to caffeine and are used dried or are chewed fresh for their
stimulating effect. The flavor is
excellent and the product is worth introducing to other areas. The seeds of Cola nitida are the Cola
Nuts of Africa. Inhabitants of Africa and elsewhere use it
for beverage purposes. The drink is
prepared by powdering the seeds when desired and boiling some of the powder
in water for several minutes. Cola
contains 2 percent caffeine as well as other ingredients and is thus
invigorating. The seeds are imported
worldwide for use in various soft drinks. <bot751>
Kola Nut (Cola nitida Schott & Endlicher) (seeds a
stimulant; relieve fatigue) [W. Africa] This is a tea like beverage
obtained from a Holly,
Ilex vomitoria. The plant is a tall compact shrub or small
tree with small oval, evergreen leaves and tough branches. It grows in sandy soil of the coastal
plain from Virginia to Mexico where it is often found in dense thickets. The Amerindian inhabitants of this region
were the first to use cassine as a beverage.
They prepared an infusion of fresh or dried leaves, which was known as
yaupon or black drink. This was used
medicinally as a spring tonic and emetic, and also played a role in religious
rites. It was sometimes
fermented. Although the use of
cassine was first reported from Florida as early as 1562 and was used to some
extent by the early European settlers, it never became popular. Some attention has been directed to the
beverage as a basis for soft drinks.
The leaves and shoots are picked and dried in the sun on trays or are
roasted in ovens. Twigs and older
leaves are sometimes steamed, dried and ground. Casseine is prepared by boiling or making an infusion. The beverage is dark colored with a very
sharp, bitter taste and tea like odor.
It contains tannin, caffeine and essential oils. Yoco, Paullinia yoco,
is an important beverage plant among Amerindians in southern Colombia and
adjacent Peru and Ecuador. Unlike
other caffeine containing species it is the bark that is the source. The caffeine content is usually 3-4
percent but may reach 6 percent.
Extractions of the bark are made in cold water. The stimulating and hunger-allaying
properties of yoco are pronounced.
The Amerindians had become very dependent on this plant that gained an
important place in their economy. A scarcity
of wild plants often led to the desertion of otherwise excellent village
sites. There are a large number of soft
drink beverages in use worldwide that all have a high sugar content and are
good sources of energy. This is the simplest kind of soft
drinks that consists of the extracted juice alone or with sugar and water
added. Although fresh juice is
readily obtainable synthetic flavors have been very common commercial products. The most common types of fruit drinks are
lemonade, orangeade, etc. Orange
juice, grapefruit juice, tomato juice and pineapple juice are very
popular. Sherbets made from
strawberries, raspberries, etc. were more common at earlier times. Grape juice is made by expressing the
fresh fruit and heating the liquid to extract the color and to pasteurize it
and thus prevent fermentation. Sweet
cider, the expressed juice of apples, and perry, obtained from pears, have
been widely used. These juices
contain wild yeasts and will ferment after 24 hours or so unless they are
pasteurized or otherwise treated so as to kill the yeast organisms. Many tropical fruits are used for beverage
purposes (Hill 1952). This drink consists of water
charged with carbon dioxide and mixed with syrup composed of sugar and
various natural or artificial flavorings.
Bottled soda, common known as pop, is widely used. A great quantity of bottled soft
drinks are available chief among which are malt beverages, ginger ale,
sarsaparilla, root beer and the cola beverages. The malt beverages are made from malted barley, or other
grains, before fermentation has started or progressed very far. They include the “near beers,” that have
an alcoholic content of less than 0.5 percent. Ginger ale consists of acidulated sugar, water and carbon
dioxide flavored with ginger and capsicum.
Sarsaparilla and root beer are similar, but the flavor is due to
sarsaparilla, wintergreen and other aromatics. The cola beverages contain cola obtained from cola nuts that
has high caffeine content. Alcoholic beverages have been a
part of the human diet from the earliest history. Alcohol has often been used in connection with religious or
other ceremonies. The various
inebriating beverages cause cerebral excitation but may be followed by
depression if taken in excess. They
fall naturally into two classes: (1)
the fermented beverages where the alcohol is formed by the fermentation of
sugar present either naturally in the source or produced by the
transformation of starch and (2) the distilled beverages that are obtained by
distillation of some alcoholic liquor.
By the 21st Century the health benefits of using moderate amounts of
alcoholic beverages became apparent to the medical profession. Wine especially has been found to prolong
longevity and reduce risks of some diseases such as cancer and
arteriosclerosis. Wine is the most important and the
oldest of the fermented beverages. It
has been since at least 4,000 B.C. and its antiquity is evidenced by the fact
that that the word for wine is the same in many languages. It is produced by the conversion of sugar
that occurs in fruits or other parts of plants, into alcohol and carbon
dioxide. This process of alcoholic
fermentation occurs through the agency of wild yeasts that are present on the
skins of the fruit. Wine is usually
understood to mean the fermented juice of the grape, but specific fruit, such
as blackberries, currants, etc. may be the source. Grapes have been cultivated for
making wine for centuries in many parts of the world. By the 21st Century the industry was most
prominent in Southern and Central Europe, the United States, Australia and
South America. The Wine
grape, Vitis vinifera, and its varieties are
the principal source. Growing grapes
requires knowledge of the best environmental conditions and many other
factors to be successful. It is an
art that requires skill and experience.
Generally wines can be classified as beverage wines or fine
wines. The former, frequently called Vin ordinaire, comprise over 95
percent of all wines and are used virtually as a food, predominantly in the
regions where they are produced. They
are inexpensive and constitute the backbone of the wine industry. Fine wines are the familiar commercial
types that enter world trade. They
are more carefully prepared and more expensive. The finest grades are produced in the older vine-growing
regions that have years of experience behind them. Wines vary in their
characteristics. The alcoholic
content varies from 7-16 percent. It
is not possible to produce a wine naturally with a higher content because the
yeast is killed under such conditions and further fermentation is precluded. The sugar content of the grapes varies
from 12-18 percent. Fermentation of
the fruits or the juice is carried on in vats, usually with the addition of
selected yeasts. The preferred
temperature is 68 deg. Fahrenheit.
The agreeable aroma and flavor are due to various aromatic principles
present in the fruit. The
characteristic bouquet develops only after the wine has been aged for period
that varies from 2-5 years to several decades. Clarification is at times required. Red wines are from grapes with
colored skins and derive their own color from the pigments and other
substances present in the skin. White
wines are made from white grapes, or expressed juice. In the dry wines or sour wines, the sugar
is almost entirely fermented. In
sweet wines fermentation is stopped before all the sugar is converted and at
least one percent is still present.
In sparkling wines the wine is bottled before fermentation is complete
so that carbon dioxide is produced within the bottle. About 90 percent of the world’s wines are
such natural or table wines.
Fortified wines are wines that have a higher alcoholic content due to
the addition of brandy or alcohol. Principal
Wine Varieties & Growing Areas Austria Some outstanding wines are
produced in the eastern foothills of the Alps, along the Danube River. Around the Vienna Woods an
excellent white wine is produced, with special festivals being held in autumn
when the "Heuriger" or first wines are available. Excellent red wines are produced in various
monasteries along the Danube .
Export of Austrian wines is limited and it is rare to find a source
for them in America. France This is the main wine-consuming
and wine-producing country of the world with millions of acres devoted to
vineyards. However, the industry is
mostly localized. The region around
Bordeaux in the valleys of the Garonne and Gironde produces most of the wine. This district is the most outstanding
single wine-growing area in the world and is famous not only for the quantity
but for the quality of its wines.
Here are the most famous vineyards and some of the finest wines in
great variety are produced. Among
these are the Medocs, renowned red wines or clarets; Graves, dry wines with
both red and white varieties; and the white sauternes and Barsacs that are
sweeter and richer. The Bordeaux
wines include regional wines consisting of blends from several vineyards as
well as the finest grades that are bottled by individual châteaux and bear
their names. Burgundy wines are produced in the
hilly country of the Côte d’Or in east central France. These red and whtie wines are drier and
have more body and flavor than the Bordeaux wines. Both still and sparkling wines are made. Champagnes are grown in the vicinity
of Reims and Epernay. Black and red
grapes are used and the manufacture involves a series of elaborate processes
that extend over a period of 6-7 years.
Because of the popularity of champagnes there are many imitations ,
which are made by charging light wines with carbon dioxide. Other types of wines are produced
in the valleys of the Loire and Rhone and in Alsace and Touraine. The Rhine valley is famous for its
vineyards where all available space on the hillsides is devoted to
grapes. The dry Rhine wintes, often
called hock, are light colored with a rich flavor and fine bouquet. Other similar wines are produced in the
valleys of the Moselle, Nekar and Main.
There are some sweet Rhine wines. Chianti, Asti and other Italian
wines have long been known, even prior to the days of Horace who sang the
praises of Falernian wine. Although
today Italy ranks second to France in wine production, only a few of its
products have gained world fame. The
principal wine producing regions are Piedmont, Tuscany and the country from
Naples southward. Sicily is noted for
its Marsala, a sherry-like fortified wine. Tokay is the wine of Hungary, a
golden yellow wine with a sweet rich flavor and rare bouquet. It is more of a liqueur than a wine as it
has a soft oily taste. True Tokay is
expensive and there is a limited supply.
There are, of course, many imitations and adulterations. Spain is noted for its sherry, a
dry wine, usually fortified with brandy and having an alcoholic content of
15-24 percent. Commercial sherries
are blended and several different grades are on the market. Malaga, another Spanish wine, is rich and
sweet. Port is the main wine of
Portugal. it is heavy and sweet due
to the presence of considerable unfermented sugar. new port is deep purplish red.
After aging in casks this wine loses some of its color and takes on a
tawny color. This is a fortified white wine
made from grapes that are grown on the island of Madeira. It is stirred in glass-lined tanks and
then heated which improves its quality.
In earlier times this wine was shipped on long sea voyages that
produced the desired result. European type grapes are grown in
the Murray Valley of South east of Australia near Adelaide. The wines made from these grapes are of
excellent and rival California in their quality. The Chilean wine district is
located west of Santiago in a coastal area that resembles the Napa and Sonoma
Valleys of California. The European
type grapes that are grown are the same as those in California and the wine
that is produced is of excellent quality.
It is distinctive but competitive with the finest California wines
produced. Grapes that are grown in the
United States, especially in California, yield wines of a distinctive nature
and excellence. These domestic wines
are competitive with the best European types. The main wine growing states are California that produces about
90 percent of the commercial output, New York, Ohio and Virginia. Other states such as Florida, Texas and
Rhode Island produce small quantities of rather unimpressive wines. Wines that are made from grapes grown in
the Eastern and Middle Western states are known primarily as native or
“American:” wines, although some European varieties are also grown. California wines are made from European
grapes grown on the West Coast and resemble European wines more closely. An extraordinary semi-sweet wine made from
sour cherries never reached commercial production. The fermentation was done at low temperatures (e.g., 40 deg.
Fahrenheit) for six months. To make beers it is first
necessary to change the source starch into sugar by adding malt or
yeast. The art of brewing alcoholic
beverages from cereals is ancient.
Millet was probably the first to be used and it is still fermented in
India and parts of Africa. Rye, rice
and maize have been used to some extent, but barley has always been the main
source. Barley “wine” was made in
ancient Egypt and Rome. Beer was
popular during the Middle Ages. For
centuries the monasteries were the principal source of supply. Beer was a popular beverage in England as
early as the 13th Century. It was
often home brewed and was a dark muddy liquid with a high alcohol
content. The lighter German beers
began to replace it in the early 19th Century. The commercial manufacture of beer involves the two distinct
processes of molting and brewing. In malting the starch present in
the grains are converted into sugar.
An enzyme, diastase, which is produced during the process of
germination, accomplishes this.
Barley is used almost universally for malting. Sometimes maize is also added. Only large, fresh, perfect and light
colored grains are used that are free from chaff and other impurities. The barley is first steeped in water for
1-4 days. During this time the grains
absorb their own weight of the water.
The grains are then placed in piles or layers 6 in. deep until
germination is started. Next they are
spread out on the malting floor at a temperature of 50-60 deg. Fahrenheit,
and are constantly turned or stirred.
When the required amount of germination has occurred, the shoots are
about one-third the length of the grain.
The germinated barley is then kiln dried for 12 hours, which prevents
any further germination and resultant loss of sugar. The color of the dried produce, known as
malt, is dependent on the amount of heat. The malt is crushed or coarsely
ground in a roller mill and mixed with water that is heated to 170 deg.
Fahrenheit. Sometimes unmalted
cereals are added. The sugar
dissolves out and the infusion or wort is drawn off. This process of mashing is repeated
several times. The residue is fed to
livestock. The word is then boiled
with hops for two hours. The hops
impart the bitter flavor and tonic properties and improve storage by
preventing bacterial action. The
liquid is then cooled rapidly and yeast is added to bring about the
fermentation of the sugar. An optimum
temperature is required for enzyme action to occur and care must be taken to
prevent the process from continuing too long as acetic acid might form. It is usually stopped before fermentation
is complete and the yeast is removed.
The beer is then drained off and strained and allowed to cool in
casks. A slow fermentation continues,
increasing the alcohol content and forming the carbon dioxide that is
responsible for the foaming of beer.
Beer contains 3-8 percent alcohol.
Its nutritive properties are due to the presence of sugar, dextrin and
various proteins and phosphates. Heavy and light beers result from
differences in temperature during the brewing process. Lager beer is a term that should be
restricted to beer that has been aged for some time. Bock beer is a very strong dark beer,
usually made in the springtime from the first of the new malt and hops. The German weiz bier does not
contain hops. Ale used to mean
any kind of malt beverage, and this usage continued until hops began to be
used. Now the difference between beer
and ale is due to differences in the temperature during fermentation. Ale is brewed by “top fermentation” at
higher temperatures, around 58 deg. Fahrenheit, while beer is brewed by
“bottom fermentation” with temperatures averaging 40 deg. Fahrenheit. The alcohol content of ale is 4-7 percent
while that of beer is 3-5 percent. Porter was
first brewed in 1722. It is a dark-brown beer with a slightly burned taste and
is made from inferior grades of malt.
The color is frequently heightened by the addition of caramel or
licorice. Porter is stored for 6-8
weeks before it is used. Stout is similar, but much heavier. It is stored for at least a year before it is used. Beer is usually made from pale or
amber colored malt, ale from brown, and porter and stout from black malt. Fresh apple juice begins to
ferment within 24 hours and gradually increases in alcohol content until it
becomes hard cider. While some
production of hard cider may be used for beverage purposes, a greater
proportion is allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation and become vinegar. Cider and other fruit vinegars are made on
a commercial scale. Pare juice, or
perry, is similarly often fermented.
Some of the highest quality apple ciders may be found in Uruguay and
Argentina, where special care and ageing are deployed. This consists of an infusion of
different kinds of roots, barks and herbs among them sarsaparilla,
wintergreen and ginger, with the addition of sugar and yeast. Fermentation begins and the beverage
becomes charged with carbon dioxide.
Root beer may also consist of an alcoholic extract of various
aromatics and bitters. Nonalcoholic
root beer is commonly made. Spruce
beer is an infusion of the leaves and twigs of the spruce, and birch beer is
obtained from the bark of the black birch. This is a fermented beverage of antiquity
and it is still used in Africa and to a lesser extent elsewhere. It is fermented from honey and water and
has a wine like flavor. The
Scandinavians introduced Mead into England and the beverage played an
important part in the 30-day nuptial ceremonies of Scandinavia. Because of this the duration of these
ceremonies was referred to as the “honeymoon.” This beverage of Japan and China
that dates back to before 600 B.C. is prepared by fermenting rice. There are no hops used. Sake contains more alcohol than beer or
wine. Sake may be used either heated
or cold, the former being preferable. The inflorescences of many species
of palms provide a juice that is often fermented. The sugary exudation is also a local source of sugar. Herodotus in 420 B.C. referred to Palm
wine or toddy. The natives of
tropical regions of both hemispheres have prepared it. The most important palm species utilized
for this purpose are Raphia vinifera, Elaeis guineensis, Borassus
flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Phoenix dactylifera and Cocos nucifera. Distilled date palm wine is Arrack. <bot319> Wine Palm (Jubaea
chilensis ), Central Chile <bot321> Wine Palm (Jubaea
chilensis ), Central Chile Fermented juice of maguey, Agave alrovirens, and other
agaves was used in Pre-Columbian Mexico as a beverage. The juice is obtained by making incisions
in the flower stalk or by removing the central cone of leaves and allowing
the sap to collect in the cavity.
When distilled this produces Mescal. <bot221> Mescal (Agave
sp.), Kofa Mts., southwestern Arizona <bot222> Mescal (Agave
sp.), Kofa Mts., southwestern Arizona <bot288> Local Mescal (Agave
sp.), San Gabriel Mts., foothills, California This is the fermented and
distilled juice of Agave tequilana of
Mexico. The procedure is similar to
that for mescal but the quality is much higher. The finest grades of tequila are expensive because the old
processes are utilized in its manufacture.
Many inferior substitutes are on the market that is derived primarily
from sugarcane. <bot889> Tequila Plants in
West-central Mexico <bot794> Agave
tequilana (Tequila var.) (beverage; fiber) [Cent. Mexico] (ex. Riverside, CA) A common and ancient beverage
among the natives of Bolivia, Peru and other Andean areas. Chicha is prepared from maize by a process
of salivation that converts the starch into sugar followed by a period of
fermentation. Similar maize beverages
have been made in Mexico and Central America. Misc. Other plants whose juices are
fermented for use as beverages include bananas, sugar cane, yucca, cassava,
sorghum, sweet potato, algaroba, pineapple and cactus. This is distilled from a fermented
mash of malted or unmalted cereals or potatoes. After several distillations of the mash a product known as “low
wines” is produced. Further
distillations yield the “high wines.”
A mixture of high wines and water is straight whiskey. At first this is harsh and not very
palatable due to the presence of from 20-40 volatile ingredients, such as
fusel oil and various esters and aldehydes.
it must be aged to allow mellowing to occur and the volatiles to
disappear. The highest-grade bonded whiskies
are aged in charred oak barrels for at least four years and frequently longer. Whiskey is colorless at first, the color
developing during the aging process. Whiskey that contains 50 percent alcohol
by volume is referred to as 100 proof.
That which contains only 45 percent alcohol is 90 proof. A continued distillation of the high wines
finally results in the neutralization or elimination of all the volatile
substances and yields the so-called neutral spirits. These are used in blended whiskies, in
making cordials and for other purposes.
They are made mainly from maize in the United States and from potatoes
in Germany. American straight whiskies are
made from maize or rye. the former constituting the famous “corn” or
moonshine of the South. About
two-thirds of the commercial whisky is Bourbon, made principally from
maize. Most of the remainder is made
from rye. Bourbon was originally made
only in Bourbon County, Kentucky.
Canadian whiskey is a blend of various straight whiskies with neutral
spirits. Scotch whiskey deploys only barley
malt. The typical flavor is due to
the smoke of the peat fires that re used in drying the malt. Irish whiskey is made from malt, or a
mixture of malt and unmalted grains of barley, oats and maize. Vodka is made from fermented wheat
mash. it is not aged but is bottled immediately
after distillation. Originally true brandy was distilled only from wine,
but the term has come to include distillations of the fermented juice of
different kinds of fruits. The
highest quality brandy is from the Charente district of France. Brandy from this region is called Cognac. Other French
brandies are called Armagnac or eau de vie. The best grades are made from white
wines. Brandy is a clear colorless
liquid and remains that way when kept in glass. The brown color develops after storage in oak casks. Brandy is sometimes artificially colored
with caramel. The alcohol content is
65-70 percent. Fruit brandies are usually made from apricots, peaches,
cherries, plums and blackberries, and they are often used as cordials. Apple brandy is known as Applejack. Rum is
distilled from the unrefined products of sugar cane, mainly the juice and
molasses. It is of American origin
and is one of the oldest and most widely known of distilled beverages. The flavor and aroma are due to various
aromatic substances that improve on aging.
The color is most often due to caramel. Rum was important to the economic and social life of the
American colonies from 1687, especially in New England. Today a great quantity of rum is distilled
in the West Indies. Rum is usually
about 40 percent alcohol. As of 2017
some of the highest quality rums are produced in Cuba. Gin is distilled
from fermented malt or raw grain mash.
The best grades are from barley malt and rye. Several distillations are required. Gin was discovered in Holland and both
Holland and England produce the best grades.
However, the methods of distillation differ somewhat. The flavor of gin is due to oil of
juniper. Other aromatic essential
oils are sometimes used for flavoring, such as in orange gin and sloe
gin. There are many imitations that
are made by adding essential oils to grain alcohol. Alcohol that is
flavored with various essential oils and to which sugar is added constitute
the liqueurs and cordials. They are
prepared by the addition of the flavoring material to neutral spirits or
brandy or by the distillation of fermented fruits. Most of these contain no harmful ingredients other than
alcohol, but some, as in the case of absinthe, do have deleterious effects
and their use is prohibited in many countries. Liqueurs
often contain various oils and cordials are carefully blended using secret
formulas. The monasteries of France have
been famous for manufacturing liqueurs.
Benedictine has been made since 665 A.D. Chartreuse is also made in the monasteries. Maraschino is
distilled from bruised marasca cherries grown in Dalmatia and sweetened and
flavored with cordials. Curaçao is distilled from the dried rind of bitter oranges
steeped in alcohol and water, with a later addition of sugar and rum. Kirshwasser, or
black cherry brandy, is distilled from fruits after which sugar and alcohol
are added. The
essential oils that are often used in the preparation of liqueurs include
anise and coriander (anisette), caraway (kümmel), peppermint (créme de
menthe), bitter almonds (créme de noyau), and clove. Some alcohol
preparations are used for appetizing and tonic properties. Vermouth is a light
bitter wine that is slightly fortified and sweetened and flavored with an
infusion of several bitter and aromatic herbs. It is made primarily in Italy and France. French Vermouth is dry while Italian Vermouth
is either dry or sweet. Steeping
certain herbs with bitter principles in water or alcohol makes Bitters. The
infusion is strained and alcohol is added.
Angostura Bitters contain quinine and some aromatics, and Orange
Bitters are some examples. |